Flexible Work Schedule and Work

Introduction Work-life balance is a top agenda item for human resource managers of most multinational and large organizations. It is even the top priority issue for employees everywhere. Whether to adopt work-life balance or flexible schedules remains a contentious issue especially with times of great business economic threats on one hand and increased family pressure on the other.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Flexible Work Schedule and Work-Life Balance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Even though organizations globally manage a workforce that is very culturally diverse, they are faced with one similar challenge of managing a more informed workforce which demands for more and more rights even in difficult economic times. Even the environment itself promotes such demands to arise and thus managers must remain competitively capable of handling this. For instance, a recent survey and report in the UK showed that longer drinking hours have significantly increased work absence (Churchard 2011). There is a continuous search for ways that will not force people to choose between work and family or friends. In multinationals, the task is not as easy as it may be on local companies. The international human resource managers are faced by an extra task of understanding the various demographic and cultural differences in the countries in which their organizations are to be found. This means that the HR policies may not be directly transferable among the countries. A policy that may be applicable in one culture without any resistance from staff may face rejection if applied in a different culture if customization is not done. In this paper, focus is given to personnel policies that relate to flexibility and work-life balance. The human resource practices in some local and multinational companies are addressed and it is sought if a set of policies related to work-life balance in a multinational corpor ation can be applicable to a subsidiary in a different country. â€Å"Trends of Working Time in Europe† â€Å" In Europe, clear efforts to improve on working hours began in the 1980s, even though there had been efforts here and there to achieve the same. In Germany, working time flexibility increased since the compromise in the metal working industry in 1984. Today, over 52% of all the dependent employees work within a flexible organization. (Carl Maier 2009)Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In an experts meeting held in Dublin on 3rd June 2011, Boulin (2011) suggested that institutions in the European Union adopt policies that favor work/life balance through parental leaves and childcare facilities and also gender mainstreaming. A suggestion was therefore made that revision of working time be done in regards to long working hours, working time options and rules conc erning unsocial hours. On the same meeting, Italian human resource expert Addabbo Tindara suggested that the quality of work dimensions be looked at from six sides namely the â€Å"social, economic, work-life balance, complexity, organizational and ergonomic dimensions.† According to the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), flexible working hours can be a major hindrance to work-life balance. Data shows that for people working less than 40 hours a week, there is no much work-family conflict. However, for employees doing over 40 hours there is greater work-family conflict. According to the study by the institute, predictability is better than flexibility as far as work-family balance is concerned. The idea of working hours being flexible is not enough, they should be predictable too. Flexible contracts can come in form of temporary working, fixed term contracts, sub contracting, and zero hour’s contracts. Other ways of creating flexible work hour s are part-time work, flexitime and overtime. People can also do job sharing and compressed hours. Different countries have adopted different forms of flexible work in line with cultural beliefs, religion and moral principles. Literature Review Work-Life Balance There is an increasing rate for the demand for work-life balance solutions by employees and managers (Bird 2006). According to Bird, work-life is a serious concern even to the senior executives for the following reasons. Work-life balance affects growth and profit of the company i.e. on and off-the-job stresses adversely affect bottom line growth and drive down productivity. There is full engagement in customer service- this creates an unnecessarily stressed and out of balance workforce. There is increased expectation by the current pool of younger workers that there is a life to live other than and out of the job. Health cost solution- there is a rising cost of health care by organizations owing to the increased work relate d illnesses.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Flexible Work Schedule and Work-Life Balance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The health perspective According to Mayo-Clinic, inability to have a good work-life balance has far reaching health effects especially to the worker. Fatigue, suppressed immunity and general unproductivity are just among the many problems the worker experiences. Mayo-Clinic proposes a strategy to strike a better balance. They propose an approach that starts with tracking one’s weekly schedule and cutting or delegating those tasks you cannot handle. They also advise people to learn to say no when extra work out of schedule is assigned to make room for joy and additional meaningful activities. Work should be left at the workplace. Advice is therefore given, especially with the current technology that could connect home to work, that people should learn to separate work from personal act ivities. Good time management is especially crucial. This goes a long way in giving the worker enough time to relax and attend to other personal matters. In addition, it goes a long way in preventing conflicts at home more so for the married workforce. Above all, a good and healthy nutrition coupled with daily physical activity routines to nurture the physical and emotional wellbeing are recommended. It goes without saying that taking time to engage in regular physical activity in a preventive measure to cardiovascular diseases among other illnesses that are accentuated by living physically inactive life. This is a trend that is very common among the working class. As such, taking time to do activities that one enjoys could be a good thing to do (Stiles 2009). It is one’s responsibility to evaluate oneself and seek professional help when it is the right time. Working long hours and working in unsocial hours of the night necessitate frequent medical check ups and other forms o f medical attention. Multinationals which have subsidiaries in areas where there is no elaborate legislation on flexible and work-life balance must take this into account. Their human resources management must also create provisions that will ensure they are well trained for health work related life. This will increase employee retention, reduce days that employees miss job due to work-related sicknesses and in the end company maintains profitability. Taking the health of the workforce with high regard also motivates the employees, which is a gain to the organization.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Flex-time Mayo-Clinic suggests that one can take advantage of available options like flex hours, job sharing, compressed week and telecommuting among others. Control over one’s hours will give less stress. Flexible working arrangements have widely been advocated for by governments and private institutions. The Australian Government (2011) attaches the following benefits to flexible working arrangements. To begin with, the Australian government has realized that flex-time improves the firm’s ability to attract skilled and motivated employees, not to mention the effect of enhancing employee retention. Staffs who are allowed to take flex-time working schedules eventually become loyal to the organization since they feel the organization appreciates them by giving them space to make their choices. The staffs therefore execute their duties as if they are shareholders of the organization. The government of Australia has also recognized that allowing for flexi-time schedules i s a great step towards increasing trust and respect between employees and the management. When employees get flex-time opportunities, they end up contributing positively to the organization by improving productivity. This is because flexible work schedules can enable staff to execute their office duties even in odd hours which otherwise they would not have been working. It is well identified that flexi-time schedules lead to a reduction in staff absenteeism and labour turnover, eventually raising the company’s productivity and profitability. The Australian Government (2011) also highlights that flexible work schedules go a long way in reducing stress levels and boosting morale and commitment in employees. Finally, flexible work schedules reduce discrimination at work place. After recognizing the above benefits of flexible work schedules, the Australian Government (2011) went ahead to propose a three step approach to ease the introduction of flexible work practices. In the fir st step, new arrangements appropriate to the individual are decided in consideration of available options. The second step is to plan the strategy, especially on how to make the negotiations. The final one is to engage the actual negotiations with the employer, giving good reasons and explanations on benefits to you and the organization too. To the employer, the government says that this move will increase recruitment of the number of persons with disabilities. These people have an advantage of lower absenteeism, lower cost of hiring them, building staff morale and fewer accidents at work. In a case study of KPMG UK, a study was done to help in improvement of the performance of its large workforce in the country. The main challenges to be overcome were to cater for the greater expectations of freedom from staff. The real challenge was therefore to create a flexible working strategy that could both meet the staff needs and still improve its competitiveness. Line managers were therefo re set to work along HR to evaluate the requests. The results were glide time, part-time working hours, job sharing, additional holiday purchase, unpaid leave, career break and home working. Time off to deal with child care is also allowed (Giglio n.d). These are indications that KPMG adopted an approach that favored flex time as opposed to balanced work-life. In the long run, it achieved business benefits through creating a more loyal, motivated and productive staff, reduced recruitment cost due to better staff retention, a diverse workforce was maintained, and reinforced the company’s core values. Despite the fact that KPMG is a multinational that has subsidiaries in almost every part of the world, the human resource practices that relate to work-life and flexible working do not apply in all subsidiaries. Those in areas where employees are not much into flexible work hours do full time with core working hours being ten to four o’clock but reporting to work at eight i n the morning and leaving at six o’clock in the evening (Giglio n.d). The Ad Council, a private non profit organization with head offices in New York and Washington D.C has an average of 100 employees. All the employees are given liberty to utilize flexible hours provided they show that their productivity will not decline nor will the company incur further financial obligations. This program began with one employee who requested to be allowed to work from home. The employees hence gain in working in a happy environment spending more time with their children. Employees end up staying while the company remains attractive to job seekers. The company does not have to give several leaves like long maternity or paternity leaves since the parents can work soonest at the comfort of their homes (Vaele 2011). A furniture company, Ward’s Furniture based in Long Beach, California began to look for flexibility options as a means of taming employee turnover and thereby retain its va luable employees. The employees are treated like a family while the company still manages to keep its stores staffed. It was able to realize between 5 and 10 percent increase in annual sales in a business unfriendly time while most of its competitors shut their doors with lack of business. Management of global workforce in relation to flexi-time and work-life balance It is difficult for organizations that have a global presence to manage a flexible and very satisfied workforce. On the international arena, the managers are faced with a challenge of making flexible schedules for the employees. Most have therefore adopted a flexible schedule of work at home, which requires commitment both from employers and employees. In a study to search the applicability of this technique globally, it was found that there were more challenges in countries with collectivist cultures. Business Process Organizations and IT firms have gone a mile ahead in establishing such schedules. In most countries th at have effected flexible work hours, the call to have them comes as a result of different employee or employer needs. For instance, employees may call for flexible hours to allow them attend to other personal issues and then compensate with later hours. The call may also come from the employer in a bid to tame employee turnover, to share work due to inadequate supply of labour or to give chances to more employees or people with disabilities. The policies thus adopted will have a different basis in the effort to meet these demands. Cross border transfer of the policies may therefore not be possible as it will be difficult to meet these demands with just one set of homogeneous provisions. Perceptions on position, culture and career This would be one of the greatest variables in determining if transfer of personnel policies across borders will be effective. Surprisingly, this also has to do with the management’s taste as it may determine if these kinds of flexible schedules wil l be introduced. A study done on women around the globe showed that 81% of the North American women would make career sacrifices to improve personal life. This compares to 70% Asian women and 55% European (Rudrappa 2005). Even when academic credentials and other experiences are very important aspects in the selection of the right candidates for a job, an arising criterion is getting the right people in the right place with focus on cultural fit. International companies like Ikea have their selection of candidates more leaning towards cultural fit. Oracle is one other company that will use this criterion even for managerial positions. Other multinational companies like the Japanese Sony and All Nippon Airways do not let academic documents get in the way of getting the right staff. Internationalization calls for special attention such that the strategies applied are consistent while at the same time being flexible. In the end, the organization is able to meet international standards w hile at the same time being sensitive to local needs. In conclusion flexibility of people both in mindset, working hours and other key aspects is deeply etched into cultures. It is one of the reasons international human resource managers will look at cultural affiliation when considering who to consider for a position. Career women and flexibility In proportion to the relative number of employed women against employed men, women seem to be the largest group that is affected by lack of flexibility of work. In fact, a study was done to determine this and it was found that 67% of women interviewed would voluntarily leave work to stay at home as a wife or mother. An overwhelming 79% would quit for family obligations while 38% would do if they were forced to stay at home to be mothers or family custodians. However, challenges are still imposed by technology by bringing a work environment at home. It adversely affects women since they are now expected to balance the life of childcare, pro fessional work and family. ILO asserts that flexible working could lead to gender balance if well managed. They warn that it could lead to the woman being more oppressed if much work is brought to the home environment while there are lots of other domestic issues to handle (International Labour Organization 2007). As such, career women would end up not being favored by the flexibility of working as expected. Criticisms In an effort to achieve maximum productivity of an international human workforce, the focus should not dwell on the culture of the group from which the international organizations draw their workforce from. With the world becoming a global village, most of these hard-line cultures are being abandoned to embrace modern living. There is also a stronger need-based force, stronger than cultural tendencies that defy culture. For instance, most multinational companies looking for labour force would go where it is cheaper, that is in countries like China, India and generally Africa. The three are deeply rooted in the connectivism culture and are likely to oppose ideas like night shifts, working on holy days and other special times. However, this is only ideal. Members of these cultural groups have swam against the tide and made an impressively flexible workforce. With several advances having been made globally in management, it is only evident that either flexible time or good work-life balance is not entirely what is needed to increase sales or acquire a competitive edge; there are a myriad of many other ways. It would be wrong, therefore, to conclude that because a company used one of these at a certain time and performed well, it is the cause of increased productivity. It is often a complex interaction of these factors. Of major importance is the psychological consideration of individuals as separate entities and identifying each person’s needs. Transfer of personnel policies across borders The transfer of personnel policies on flexible and w ork-life balance is limited by the reasons each country established its statutes as compared to the other than it is by cultural differences. There is also lots of revision of the statutes as the workers and work demands keep changing and therefore necessitating their constant change. The absence of a very elaborate policy direction from the International Labour Organization is a limitation in itself to a smooth transfer of personnel policies regarding this area among nations. During its presidency of the European Union, Sweden promoted its working life. It is a clear indication that there is no homogeneous body of social science knowledge about work-life balance which can allow policy formulation and legislation. The incongruence in the laws formulated and lack of information in certain cases in different countries therefore pose a hindrance to easy transfers of personnel across borders. What may be considered as a bundle of family friendly practices in one country may be the oppos ite in the other (Tulgan 1996). Comparative issues have not been adequately dealt with to identify the key issues of work-life balance. There are therefore many cross-national differences in assumptions about the norms of family life and employer’s responsibilities. Divorce rates are a good indicator of this (Guest 2001). A good example is in what was back in the years, the Soviet Union. It used to have a strong stress on welfare and family support in its factory system but with the collapse of the communist system, a breakdown of these institutions was experienced. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has certain provisions that regard healthy working time and family friendly working time. It thus works towards seeking a solution of the traditional â€Å"male bread winner- female home maker† situation. Much of what it proposes falls within the flexible schedule brackets as part of it is part-time jobs and hourly wages for full time jobs (International Labour Or ganization 2007). Europe however is a step ahead in promoting some homogeny even though there still arises some disparities in legislation among the member countries. It is for that reason easier to have transfer of these policies within Europe. The ICT industry has been successful in maneuvering around most legislative and cultural barriers that may come in the way of flexible and work-life balance. The main reason is that much of ICT-related work can be done form whichever point in location. Technology has eased the barriers even though it has not cleared them. Most jobs that can be done online and perhaps have no tight deadlines encourage flexibility. Other than working as a ‘Flexibility Coach’, the human resource manager of a multinational must orientate himself to understanding of diverse cultures and their attitudes towards all aspects of work. As employees of today focus on improving on their work-life balance, the option of across border transfers is at stake. E mployees want to be either near home or at home, whether working or attending to personal matters. In this perspective, IHRM must focus on the real impact of flexible work-life balance. In most developing, nations especially of Africa and Asia, the concept of flexibility may be relatively new and if it has been adopted, it is only by a few companies related to ICT, though still to a lesser magnitude. For instance, choice may be on when to work but not necessarily on where to do it. For multinationals that have expanded to these areas, the use of a common HR policy on all aspects may not be possible, unless the members of the subsidiary group are flexible in their mindset to accommodate it. The culture of the host nation and donor nation may differ and this will have its share of the reasons transfer of personnel policies will not be efficient. In a case study to compare such cultures, Taiwan and UK were taken into consideration. First, UK is a developed economy while Taiwan is an up coming economy. Taiwanese principles are based on Confucianism while UK principles are based on individualism. Duty to family, harmonious attitude and a consensus towards a conflict-free working are some of the guiding principles for Taiwan. For UK, the individualism approach has no such thing as society to regard. The Taiwanese system provides permanent work because of values of Confucianism like â€Å"long term orientation†. On the other hand, at least 64% of UK’s workforce is either home-based workers or part-time workers. On such basis, transferability of the policies is therefore difficult for the two countries (Chang, Wilkinson Mellahi 2007). Challenges facing international work time management One of the greatest challenges a general manager of an international organization would face is managing people of different cultures in relation to productivity for his organization. The manager is left with an option of considering labour cost factors and economic facto rs as the major determinants. Even the expansion would need to consider these cultural factors. The prevailing religion could be considered as cultural. Religion affects people’s stands and these would best be factored in consideration of setting up an international business. Selecting managers for various assignments would mean screening them for such cultural factors for the sake of adaptability, self orientation and relational skills. Agreements on work life and flexible work Most researchers seem to agree that flex time and work balance must go hand in hand if it is possible for a specific job. Mayo-Clinic seems especially to propose a harmonized balance of the two. There is especially one general agreement in all schools of thought that the number of hours each person works per week could be rescheduled to become more productive and beneficial to the employee. Scholars of different schools of thought seem to agree that flexible work schedules can be either beneficial or detrimental to the organization. Detriment seems to come from less commitment of work-at-home employees. Conflicts on work life and flexible work The greatest conflict arises when the two aspects of work improvement are not differentiated and are addressed as one and the same thing. The Work Foundation (2008) addresses work-life balance as â€Å"having a measure of control over when, where and how you work leading to ability to enjoy an optimal quality of life† (para 5). In this definition, more of the issues addressed would rather fall on flexible work than work-life balance. It does not address the internal adjustment of the individual in terms of preparedness, personal schedule and attitudes towards work in an effort to make sure that work does not stall personal affairs or the other way. Some scholars depict work-life balance and the right to ask for a flexible working as impossible to overcome owing to the differences in cultures. They suggest that it could only be handl ed like subsidiaries requiring totally independent practices and policies. Other scholars imply that with the globalization of management, everything else concerning the working environment could be ‘globalized’ and enable transfer of personnel policies internationally. Summary There is diversity amongst European countries concerning the basis on which statutes on flexible working were introduced. UK, for instance, introduced them in response to labour market shortages and to eliminate work-family conflict that became a barrier to employment. Other countries introduced theirs in response to unemployment and therefore it was a means of work sharing. The compatibility of personnel policies of such countries is therefore capped by these facts and is difficult to effect. The internationalization of HRM is limited by social cultural factors. Some of these factors are issues like common age, size, and norms of behavior, presence of customs, influence of labour unions, labour market and perceptions of different stakeholders. When looked at from a flexibility dimension, many other factors like pay and benefits, communication, transfers and business environment come into play. It is becoming increasingly important for multinational enterprises to globalize their human resource practices. How best to do it on a culturally diverse workforce depends on the continued innovativeness and creativity of the managers. Gaps between strategic management and international human resource management function must be bridged. Despite its difficulty, it has proved possible with several multinational companies effectively effecting flexible schedules to all their subsidiaries. German companies are known, for instance, to expand to Thailand, Singapore and Indonesia and still successfully implement their personnel policies in all of them. International human resource management is faced with such emerging issues and must be competitive enough to cater for it to overcome such challenges and retain a competitive edge. The disparities in how such policies evolve must be catered for because the rate of changes may not be the same. It will even mean constant revision of the policies in a fast changing world. Countries that are technologically advanced are easier to manage because infrastructure supports such changes. The human resource management team will however experience a higher demand from employees of such countries. Competent international human resource managers will, according to this research, be open-minded so as to accommodate different cultures in the work-life balance requests. In the long run, the human resource manager seeks to help the employees achieve personal satisfaction as they achieve organizational goals. He may not be able to put into effect these flexible schedules for managers since their roles are more demanding and options like sharing will be out of question even with much delegation. Differences in cultural factors are partia lly a hindrance to the transferability of personnel policies, but not a block never to be overcome. List of References Australian Government, 2011. How to negotiate a flexible work environment. JobAccess. [online] Available at: http://jobaccess.gov.au/Jobseekers/Starting_work/How_to_negotiate_a_flexible_work_environment/Pages/home.aspx . Bird, J., 2006. Work-life balance: Doing it right and avoiding the pitfalls. Employment Relations Today, 33(3), 1-9. Boulin, J., 2011. Flexible working hours and their impact on work-life balance and working conditions. Expert Meeting- Organization of Working time: Implications for Working Conditions, Dublin, June 3rd 2011. [Online] Available at: http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/events/2011/workingtime/meeting2.htm . Carl, A. Maier, F., 2009. â€Å"Flexible working time arrangements in Germany.† External Report Commissioned by and presented to the EU Directorate-General Employment and Social Affairs, Unit G1 ‘Equality between women and m en’. [Online] Available at: http://www.fgbegge.it/public/documets/Flexible%20working%20time%20arrangements%20in%20Germany.pdf Chang, Y. Y., Wilkinson, A. J. Mellahi, K., 2007. HRM strategies and MNCs from emerging economies in the UK. European Business Review, 19(5), 404 – 419 Churchard, C., 2010. Longer drinking hours ‘drive up workplace absence’. [online] Available at: http://www.peoplemanagement.co.uk/pm/articles/2011/10/longer-drinking-hours-drive-up-workplace-absence.htm Giglio, K., n.d. Workplace flexibility case studies. Sloan Work and Family Research Network. [online] Available at http://wfnetwork.bc.edu/template.phpname=casestudy#unc Guest, D. E., 2001. Perspectives on the study of work-life balance. [Online] Available at: http://www.ucm.es/info/Psyap/enop/guest.htm . International Labour Organization, 2007. Decent working time: Balancing workers’ needs with business requirements. ILO. [online] Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travail/w hatwedo/publications/lang–en/docName–WCMS_145391/index.htm Rudrappa, S., 2005. Women in global workforce. [online] Available at: http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/corporate/press/20050419_ut_whitepaper.pdf Stiles, P. et al., 2009. Best practice and key themes in global human resource Management: Project Report [online] Available at: http://www.cihrm.jbs.cam.ac.uk/research/downloads/ghrra_report.pdf . The Work Foundation, 2008. Jargon buster. theworkfoundation.com. [online] Available at: http://www.theworkfoundation.com/difference/e4wlb/jargonbuster.aspx Tulgan, B., 1996. Managing Generation X. Oxford: Capstone. Vaele, P., 2011. Workplace flexibility case study: The Ad Council’s flexible work schedule policy. [online] Available at: wfnetwork.bc.edu/pdfs/adcouncil.pdf This essay on Flexible Work Schedule and Work-Life Balance was written and submitted by user Maxim Casey to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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[4] This process of removal of material from one or both of two surfaces in contact is known as wear. [6] Lubrication is the most effective me thod to lower the friction and to control wear and tear. Lubrication is the process of interposing a solid liquid or gaseous lubricant in between two surfaces in relative motion in order to decrease wear and tear. [6] Tribology is the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related subjects and practices. [5] Tribology is derived from the Greek word Tribos which means rubbing. It deals with relative motion of the bodies, friction, wear and lubrication. The motion of the bodies includes sliding, rolling, spinning, bouncing or combination of these. [5] The written history of tribology is as old as about five thousand years. In olden days itself people were concerned about friction and the ways to reduce it. Assyrians used rollers made of wood to move massive stones. [2] Later carts are developed as rolling friction is less than sliding friction. Although the ways to reduce friction was highly concerned from the olden days itself, the word tribology was introduced in 1966. [5] The minimum film thickness in tribological machine elements was in the order of 10 µm to 100 µm at the start of the century. Later advance in the tribology led to the development of components with film thickness up to 1 µm. The thickness is further reduced to 0.1 µm by the end of the century. In short, tribolo gy in the important factor in design of machine elements and selection of lubricants. [5] 2. ROLLING BEARINGS: Invention of wheel led to minimise the effort of moving an object as rolling friction is less than that of sliding friction. Even though rolling motion produces less friction, man was seeking different ways to decrease the rolling friction. This led to the discovery that bearing based rolling motion consumes less power. Hence it was implemented in all rolling systems including complex machine mechanisms. In earlier periods the roller bearings was not able to compete with the hydrodynamic sliding bearings as it cannot meet with the endurance characteristics of the other. The roller bearing was universally accepted in the 20th century by the development of superior bearing materials and advanced techniques. This helped to manufacture roller bearing assemblies with extreme accuracy and long life. The competition among the manufacturers increased in early 1970s which led to a sudden increase in the production of high quality products at relatively low costs. [2] Rolling bearing includes all types of bearings to permit minimum friction between two moving surfaces relative to one another. The main application of roller bearing is to rotate a shaft relative to some fixed or oppositely rotating structure. It also allows relative linear motion of a fixture in a fixed direction provided by a stationary shaft. [3] Usually a bearing consists of two steel rings each of which consists of a hardened raceway. The hardened steel balls or rollers roll in these raceways. These rolling elements are usually held in an angular spaced structure which is called separator or retainer. [2] ball.gif Figure 1- Ball Bearings [7] There are different types of roller bearings based on their analysis of operation. A brief description on various types of bearings is explained below. 2.1 BALL BEARINGS: 2.1.1 Radial Ball Bearings: Radial ball bearings are the most popular rolling bearings. This type of ball bearings has an inner and outer raceway grooves in between the balls are inserted. The grooves have curvature radii of about 53% of the size of the ball diameter. The inner groove is concentrically fixed inside the outer groove and the ball bearings are present in between the grooves. The bearings are separated uniformly. A cage is used to maintain the separation. Deep groove ball bearings have the capacity to carry more loads as it is having large ball diameter. It can carry radial as well as thrust loads. Seals are present to keep the lubricant in and protect from external dirt. [2] Figure 2- Radial Ball Bearings [8]radial-bearings.jpg 2.1.2 Angular Contact Ball Bearings:406px-Angular-contact-ball-bearing_single-row_din628_type-b_120.png Angular contact bearings are designed to withstand heavy thrust loads or a combination of both thrust and radial loads. The ball bearings have a contact angle which does not exceed 40 degrees. Single and double row ball bearings are usually used depending upon the nature and magnitude of force to withstand. In this type of ball bearings, the outer raceway is the part of a sphere. The load applied on the outer raceway is minimised as the balls do not conform well into it. By using large balls the load on each ball can be minimised. This type of bearings can be used in applications where the parallelism of shaft and the housing are not exact to each other. [2] Figure 3- Angular Contact Ball Bearings [9] 2.1.3Thrust Ball Bearings: thrust-ball-bearing_din711_ex.png Thrust bearings are those bearings having a contact angle of 900 which can withstand thrust loads. These types of bearings are meant for high speed applications. The thrust bearings are mounted on spherical seats to obtain high degree of alignment ability. These bearings cannot be used to hold any radial loads. [2] They are mainly used in automotive, marine and aerospace applications. These increase smoothness and help in noise reduction thereby reducing friction in the attached part. Small size, reduced friction and long life are the main advantages of thrust bearings. [10] Figure 4- Thrust Ball Bearings [11] 2.2 ROLLER BEARINGS: Roller bearings are used in applications where the bearings have to support very high loads. Rollers are used in these bearings instead of balls. In these roller is cylindrical in shape and so line contact is formed between rollers and raceways. This spreads the load out a large area. Hence they have more load supporting capability. [12] They supply more fatigue endurance than ball bearings. Also the cost of manufacturing is high. These bearings consist of two concentric raceways which consist of rollers in between the two. To increase the load carrying capacity, cylindrical bearings with two or more rows of rollers are constructed. Different types of roller bearings include needle roller bearings, tapered roller bearings, thrust roller bearings and spherical roller bearings. [2] Roller-Bearing.jpgLB_OP_Linear_Motion_Bearing_250x250.jpg Figure 5- Roller Bearings [13] Figure 6- Linear Motion Bearing [14] 2.3 LINEAR MOTION BEARINGS: Linear motion bearings are the recent products developed in order to provide free motion in one dimension. In machine tool slide ways, very high friction is developed. Linear motion bearing consists of balls which carry the loads laterally in a particular direction and hence wear and tear can be minimised. They provide smooth, precision, guiding surface. The rolling element of a linear bearing rides over it thereby reducing friction. [15] 3. TRIBOLOGICAL FACTORS: Tribology deals with friction, wear and lubrication. The two key factors related to tribology are interacting surfaces and relative motion. It is clear that tribology is concerned with two surfaces in relative motion which are adequately close to one another. Usually a poor tribological interface is designed and then various lubricants are used to lower the friction between the surfaces. The most acceptable way is to design a better interface which includes the selection of a good lubricant also to minimise the friction and wear to the lowest. [5] Various tribological factors are to be taken into consideration while taking a situation. The important tribological factors include: Material Surfaces Lubricants Operating Conditions [5] 3.1 MATERIAL: The initial step to be taken while designing a product is the material selection. There are various factors which are taken into consideration while selecting the material. For tribological point of view the following factors are to be given importance before material selection. Basic Mechanical Properties Friction Wear Resistance Compatibility [5] 3.1.1 Basic Mechanical Properties: The basic mechanical properties of the material such as elastic modulus, Poissons ratio, yield stress, hardness, fatigue resistance, ultimate tensile strength and thermal conductivity are to be analysed. [5] Also the availability and cost of the material are also taken into account. Based on these observations the best material suitable for the manufacturing of bearings is selected. The selection of material used for bearings is to be done carefully based on standard specifications. The material plays an important role in the performance of the bearings. This affects the overall performance of the machinery also. The selected material is used to manufacture the load bearing parts of the bearings like raceway grooves and balls or rollers only. Retainers and cages are made from some other soft materials with desired qualities. [17] 3.1.2 Friction: Friction is the resistance offered by two interacting surfaces in relative motion. The degree of friction is denoted by coefficient of friction  µ. [6] Friction occurred during sliding is known as sliding friction and which occurred during rolling is known as rolling friction. The main factors which cause friction are adhesion between surfaces, surface hardness, asperities etc. [6] 3.1.2.2 Laws of Friction: There are different laws of friction which are applicable to dry friction between interacting surfaces. The first and second laws were put forward by Leonardo da Vinci and third law was introduced by Coulomb. [6] The first law of friction states that force required to initiate or sustain sliding FT is proportional to FN, the normal force. [6] Thus FT ÃŽ ± FN or FT =  µ.FN [6] Where  µ = Coefficient of friction The second law of friction states that the friction force FT is independent of the apparent area of contact Aa [6] The third law of friction states that friction is independent of sliding speed. [6] It was found that the first two laws of friction are obeyed in almost all experimental conditions. Lubrication systems can be used to lower the friction developed within the bearings. Friction in bearings depends upon the viscosity of lubricant and shear rate. Self lubricated bearings are widely used as it offers only very low friction. [20] 3.1.3 Wear: Wear can be termed as the material loss or volume loss from the surface of the materials in contact. [21] The main types of wear occurring on material surfaces are adhesive wear, abrasive wear, fatigue wear, corrosive wear. The local pressure at the asperities becomes extremely high when the normal pressure is acted upon the mating surfaces. When the pressure exceeds a certain limit, the asperities deform plastically until the area of contact increased sufficiently to withstand the load. The wear produced due to adhesion process has been explained by Archard equation. Wad = K [22] Where Wad = wear rate K = wear coefficient F = normal load H = hardness of softer material When two dissimilar materials slide over one another, the softer material gets scratched away. Thias type of wear is called as abrasive wear. Fatigue wear occurs when a rotating shaft is subjected to reversal of bending stresses. Corrosive wear is due to the reaction of the material surface with the environment or an external agent. [6] Wear occurs in ball and roller bearings due to corrosion, shock loading of fatigue. Atmospheric agents like dirt and girt are the other external factors which are responsible for wear. [4] 3.1.4 Compatibility: Alloys are usually selected as bearing materials. Alloy is a solid composition consisting of two or more metals and elements in fixed proportions. The two alloys which are used to manufacture the bearings are Chrome Steel and Stainless Steel. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. [17] Various other elements like silicon, manganese, phosphorous, sulphur, chromium and molybdenum are added in chrome and stainless steels in order to increase the strength, hardness and corrosion resistance of the alloys. [18] Carbon is used in the alloy to form cementite structure and to formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite. This improves hardenability of the alloys up to 0.65%. Wear resistance is increased up to 1.5%. Toughness of the alloy reduces and the brittleness increases when carbon is added. Manganese increases the hardness penetration of steel. Chromium is added to increase hardness, toughness and wear resistance to steel. Silicon acts as the deoxidiser during the manufacturing process. [19] 3.1.4.1 Chrome Steel Chrome steel is one of the widely used alloys to manufacture bearings. It is used mainly in high load bearing applications as this material is capable of withstanding very high loads. The machinability of the material is as high as highly finished, less noisy bearings are obtained. Also the life of the bearings is also very high. Under test conditions, the Rockwell hardness of the material is observed as 60 64 C. This material is used in applications where corrosion is not considered. [16] The constituent elements in the chrome steel are given in the table 1. 3.1.4.2 Stainless Steel The standard material used for the bearings is 400 series Martensitic Stainless Steel. This type of steel is highly resistant to corrosion and hence stainless steel bearings are used in applications where corrosion is to be taken into account. It is having less load withstanding capacity when compared to chrome steel. There are three types of 400 series Stainless Steel suitable for making bearings. These materials are developed by manufacturers to be used for certain specific applications. [16] 3.1.4.2.1 DR Stainless steel This material is highly resistant to corrosion and is used in applications which deal with highly corrosive medium. The material can be precisely machined so as to obtain high degree of finish to the surface of bearing. This helps in smooth, low noise operation of the bearings. The Rockwell hardness of the material is observed as 58 60 C. [16] The chemical composition of the material is given in table 2. 3.1.4.2.2 AISI 440C Stainless Steel AISI 440C Stainless Steel is highly resistant to corrosion and is easily available. But it is not widely used now a day when more modern materials are developed. The Rockwell hardness of the material is 58-60 C. [16] The chemical composition is given in table 3. 3.1.4.2.3 ES1 Stainless Steel: This material is highly resistant to corrosion and has high machinability. Thus highly finished surfaces can be produced. The material is having a Rockwell hardness number of 58 60 C. [16] The composition of the material is given in table 4. 3.2 SURFACE: Surface quality of the materials is one of the major tribological factors which determine the efficiency of the product. [4] Surface finish decides the amount of friction and wear of the material. Surface texture and conformity are the terms which are to be given importance. 3.2.1 Surface texture: The surface of the material is the part which interacts with the environment. The surface may not be highly finished due to several reasons. It may be due to the imperfections caused during manufacturing, due to external agents or due to loads acting on the surface. The deviations observed on the surface can be mainly classified into three which includes roughness, waviness and error of form. [23] Roughness is the surface irregularities which consist of rises and valleys. This creates an uneven surface pattern. Waviness is the small ups and downs on the surface which is having less amplitude that of roughness. These may be caused due to work piece deflections, vibration or heat treatment. Error of form is the slight deviations from the nominal shape. [6] The surface profiles can be traced by using different apparatus like Abbott profilometer, Tomilson surface finish recorder and Talysurf surface finish recorder. [4] 3.2.2 Conformity: Conformity is the degree of agreement between the surfaces. [5] An interface consisting of two plates is said to have high conformity. Journal bearing is an example for high conformity material. An interface consisting of a plate and a ball is said to be having low conformity. Ball bearing is an example for low conformity material. Conformity is an important factor which is to be considered as it has an important role in determining the pressure, shear stress and temperature in the interface. [5] Figure 7- Surface Texture [23] 3.3 LUBRICANTS: Lubrication is the technique employed to reduce wear by the interposition of a solid, liquid or gas between the two surfaces which come into contact with one another. It was a persistent problem for man for centuries from the day he used to move materials. Friction consumes and wastes energy whereas wear leads to the damage of the equipment which are undesirable and it has to be avoided at any cost. Every moving part of machinery is subjected to friction leading to wear and tear which has to be avoided. Lubrication plays a vital role in avoiding the friction between mating surfaces. The history of lubricant begins thousands of years before. It was found that the ancient Egyptians used lubricants to avoid friction in the wheels of chariots. [24] In ancient times lubricants were of animal, plant and marine origin. Later mineral oils were started to use as lubricant. The new science of lubrication based on hydrodynamics came in 1880s. [24] Lubricants are of solids, liquids and gases but liquid lubricants are widely used. These include mineral oil, synthetic oil, grease, vegetable oil and water. Lubrication is done by applying a thin film of lubricant between the surfaces in contact. [6] Thus undesirable problems like friction, wear, noise and vibrations can be reduced to a very high extent. 3.3.1 Viscosity: Viscosity of a lubricant is the main characteristic which is taken into account before selecting it for a specific application. Friction, heat generation, film thickness and load carrying capacity depend upon the viscosity of lubricant used. Generally viscosity can be stated as the hindrance of the fluid to flow. But based on lubrication, viscosity is the measure of ability of fluid to maintain lubrication at specific operating conditions. [24] 3.3.2 Lubrication Regimes: Lubrication can generally be classified into four different regimes based on the thickness of the fluid film in between the surfaces in contact. They include: Hydrodynamic Lubrication Boundary Lubrication Mixed Lubrication Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 3.3.2.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication: image8.jpg Figure 7- Hydrodynamic Lubrication [25] In hydrodynamic lubrication, a fluid film is formed in between the two surfaces in contact. Thus one surface floats on the other and there occurs no direct contact between the surfaces. In microscopic level the surfaces of the materials consist of asperities. In normal condition without lubrication, the asperities are in direct contact with each other. When one surface slides over the other, the asperities get deformed producing friction and hence wear. Hydrodynamic lubrication helps avoid the friction as there is no direct contact between the surfaces. The viscosity of the lubricant helps to increase the fluid pressure in between the surfaces. Thus the lubricant layer holds the surfaces apart. As the lubricant layer formed is thicker than the surface roughness of the material, one material slides over the other without damaging the surface. It is observed that the thickness of the film is more than 1 µm. [24, 25] The surface is separated apart by hydrostatic lift. A fluid flowing over a surface immediately takes the speed of the surface. Similarly when the fluid moves in a converging gap, the pressure increases and the surface is lifted. [25] 3.3.2.2 Boundary Lubrication: Boundary lubrication is a type of lubrication in which the surface roughness of the material is same as that of the fluid layer thickness. Thus when one surface moves upon the other, the asperities comes into contact. When load is applied the asperities gets plastically deformed which leads to friction and wear. As friction is not desirable different methods are also adopted to reduce friction in this type of lubrication. This includes the use of various additives to the lubricants. The additives are classified according to the surface action exhibited on the material surface. They are mainly of three types. Physically absorbed layers Chemically absorbed layers Chemical reaction layers 3.3.2.2.1 Physically adsorbed layers: When the lubricant is applied, it forms a layer on the material surface. The weak intermolecular force called van der Walls force exerted by the layer of the lubricant helps to attach to the surface. This layer lubricates and allows the other surface to slide over the other without causing friction. As the lubricant is not undergoing any chemical reaction, the process is reversible. The bonds formed by van der Walls force are weak and it can be removed. The main disadvantage of the physically adsorbed lubricants is that they have a temperature limit above which the lubricant melts. 3.3.2.2.2 Chemically adsorbed layers: Chemically adsorbed layers are those formed due to the chemical reaction with the surface material. Chemisorption is a type of adsorption in which the molecules are hold tight by the valence force of the molecules of the lubricant. The bonds created are stronger than the physically adsorbed layers. Usually chemically adsorbed lubricants form long chain fatty acid molecules, which has high affinity to metal surfaces. Fatty acid additives like stearic and oleic acid forms chemically adsorbed layers. The typical thickness of the boundary film is about 3 µm. As chemical reaction takes place in the interface, the adsorbed layer can be removed only under extreme conditions like high temperature, vacuum or by using some chemical treatments. [26] 3.3.2.2.3 Chemical reaction layers: Chemical reaction layers are formed by the reaction of additives in the lubricant with the surface of the material on which it is applied. In this adsorption is not taking place, instead a chemical reaction that bonds the lubricant and the material occurs. Thus the layers formed are permanent. The main disadvantage of physisorption and chemisorptions is the temperature limit above which the lubricant gets ineffective. In this type of reaction the working temperature is not a factor. Hence this type of lubrication is used in high speed and high load operating systems as high temperature is developed in these cases. Zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDDP) is widely used as an additive to produce effective chemical reaction films. [24] 3.3.2.2 Mixed Lubrication: Mixed lubrication has the features of both hydrodynamic lubrication and boundary lubrication. In hydrodynamic lubrication the contact surfaces are separated apart by the pressure of the lubricant interposed between the surfaces. Hence there will not be any contact between the two surfaces in motion. But in boundary lubrication, one surface rests on the other. When the surface moves the asperities gets plastically deformed which causes friction and wear. Mixed lubrication acts between the two extremes of hydrodynamic and boundary lubrication. In mixed lubrication regimes a fluid film layer is developed where contact takes place between the asperities of the surfaces. Thus a slight deformation is formed while sliding occurs which is highly desirable. The film thickness ranges from 0.05 µm to 0.1 µm. [25] 3.3.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication: Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is a type of lubrication which brings together hydrodynamic lubrication, hertzian contact and change in viscosity with pressure. In this method of lubrication, the surface is modified to minimise friction. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is used in applications where low conformity and highly loaded tribological interfaces are present. Roughness of the wearing surface is taken into consideration in this lubrication. Roughness is taken as the average of high and low points of the surface which is called as the centreline average. [27] A non conformal contact can produce pressure to a very high level. When the pressure increases it directly affects the viscosity of the lubricant. In normal conditions the viscosity of the lubricant is less noticeable but during elastohydrodynamic lubrication the viscosity increases which makes the lubricant act as a semi solid. This creates a thin film of oil in between the mating surfaces. [25] 3.4 OPERATING CONDITIONS: Operating conditions are the main aspect to be taken into account while designing a mechanical component including bearings. There are different factors which comprises the operating conditions. Load Relative Motion Temperature Environment 3.4.1 Load: The load applied on each ball and roller is to be determined to manufacture the bearings which can operate at the desired applications without failure. In order to calculate the load deflection relationship is to be developed for roller element contacting raceways. In almost all the applications the outer or inner raceways is in steady state rotation. The speed of the rotation may not be large enough to affect significantly the distribution of the load equally on each roller or ball elements. The rigidly supported bearing is subjected to radial load which may lead to deflection. The radial deflection at any rolling element is given by ÃŽ ´ÃË† = ÃŽ ´r cos ψ  ½ Pd [2] Where ÃŽ ´ÃË† = radial deflection r = ring radial shift ÃŽ ¨ = angular location Pd = diametral clearance Thrust load and roller bearings are also subjected to thrust loads which are distributed equally among the rolling elements. The thrust load can be calculated using Q = Fa / Z Sin ÃŽ ± [2] Where Q = thrust load Fa = applied load Z = number of rollers per row ÃŽ ± = contact angle 3.4.2 Relative Motion: Relative motion is the motion of either one or both surfaces with respect to each other. There are different forms of relative motion depending upon the style of motion. They include sliding, rolling, spinning and bouncing. Sliding refers to the smooth movement over a surface maintaining the contact between each other. Rolling is the movement by revolving within the axis. Spinning is the rotation of a material within its axis. Bouncing is the rebounding due to an impact. Chance for sliding occurs in the rolling bearings due to thrust loads. Bouncing may occur due to sudden fluctuation in loads which may lead to destruction of bearing material. 3.4.3 Temperature: Operating temperature is a factor which is to be taken into consideration for the smooth functioning of the bearings at load conditions. Temperature rise may occur in the bearings during operation which may be due to different reasons. One factor which causes the rise in temperature is the application of excess load. If excess load is applied, the material may not be designed to withstand that much high load. So it may lead to failure. Another reason for the temperature rise is the absence of lubricant. The lubricant should be interposed to the surfaces in contact. If it fails to continuously supply the lubricant to the surface, friction is produced which results in gradual rise in temperature. Various coatings are also used to overcome temperature extremes. 3.4.4 Environment: Nature of environment is the feature which can influence the efficiency and life of the bearings. There are different agents which affect the operating conditions of the bearings which may be harmful. These include contaminations like dust, wear particles, air, water, process fluid etc. Insulations are to be provided to avoid exposure to these external agents. This can be done by using seals or coatings. 4. CONCLUSION: The various tribological factors are to be considered while designing rolling bearings. This tribological audit looks for the different factors which affect the performance and life of the bearings. The major tribological factors found include material, surface, lubrication and operating conditions. Different solutions are available which can be applied to each factor to lower the friction. Material should be wisely selected which can be easily machined to obtain highly finished surfaces and should possess the strength to withstand the loads applying on it. The material should be selected according to the application. Surface texture and conformity of the material is to be carefully observed as the surface finish is one of the major factors which cause friction. Lubrication plays a major role in the performance of the equipment. Right method of lubrication is selected. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication forms the film with minimum thickness which is the most desirable in bearings. Operat ing conditions affects the performance and life of the bearings which includes contaminations like dirt, wear particles, water, corrosive process fluid etc. Proper measures are to be taken to avoid exposure to these agents. From this audit it is clear that we have to take care of the tribological factors and select the most suitable ones to obtain maximum performance and life to the rolling bearings.

Surviving The Last Plantation :: essays research papers fc

Self-preservation, natures first great law,All the creatures, but man, doth awe.-Andrew MarvelleLove, family, and small thrills are but three things to live for. Sometimes they are the only things to live for. Sometimes they are what drive us to survive. For some of the inmates at Angola State Prison, there is little to live for and they still survive. Daniel Bergner once stated, "We live for whatever it is possible to live for†¦" (168). But what do the inmates of Angola live for? What brings meaning into their lives? Many of the inmates at Angola have been convicted of capital crimes. Many have no chance for parole. They still survive; they still find a reason to live. They find meaning in their lives.Before purpose and survival or redemption and salvation can be discussed, an idea of what Angola is must be produced. The warden of Angola is a large man by the name of Burl Cain. Some believe that he is the reason for Angola being what it is. Bergner believes different:The striking tranquility at Angola—confirmed by the ACLU’s National Prison Project and Louisiana’s own watchdogs—could not be credited to Warden Cain alone. Twenty-one years ago conditions had been so anarchic and murderous a federal judge had ruled that the prison "shocked the conscience" and breached the Eight Amendment’s guarantee against cruel and unusual punishment. Reform had begun then. [†¦] [Warden Cain] aimed not merely at warehousing inmates safely, but at rebuilding them, at redeeming them, whether in terms of his Southern Baptist belief or in religious terms more broad ("Love thy neighbor†¦") or simply in the sense of learning to live in some valuable way, without the impulses that lead to destroying others†¦. (24-25)Though Bergner only carries this thought through the beginning of his stay at Angola, it is till a viable description of the institution. With this rough idea of Angola in mind, the inmates of Angola can be discussed. Their reasons for living can be shared.Carey "Buckkey" Lasseigne was convicted to live imprisonment at Angola at the age of 22 (Bergner 220). "He was separated from his wife the month after the killing, and they have since divorced. But they had been back together since his first year at Angola" (Bergner 221). That is part of what kept Buckkey going; part of what gave him a reason to live inside Angola. His wife is only part of the reason.

Art is an expression Essay

Art to me is an expression. Society has a way of creating social norms, and through this influence people to become inspired to be different, to express themselves in many ways and to share with others this passion, in the form of art. Cultures have utilized art in the form of drawings, patterns, and techniques; for example the type of clothes they wear, and type of houses they live in. Art is everywhere. Albert Einstein once said, you could look at life as if nothings a miracle or as if everything is. I think that you can look at art in the same way. I remember watching a film in class on a man and a woman who were in charge of the community project that consisted of hanging sheets for miles. I have no idea why they would do that over a different art project, but I got their message. It was all about working together, doing something that was unique and of their own works, regardless of everyone else’s opinion. They had to fight the system for a while before they were able to begin. That’s passion. After the readings I can’t help but to agree that art offers us a way to go beyond physical existence. What the author is saying to me is that art in every form changes our values our ideas in an effect change our lives. We are not robots, we don’t have to stay within regulations; we have the ability to be creative. Being creative is the most powerful tool we have some may argue. To touch back on why people make art, I can remember watching movies as a kid and there was this one kid out of the prep school that did wear the dress uniform to standard like all the other students. He was seeking to be different. Changing your uniform up a little to be different is art. Indians may paint their faces and their horses differently so that they stand out of all the others so that they can be found and identify. Same cases Indians made art was to distinguish themselves from other tribes as to not kill  their own people during a raid or battle. I used to become stressed with school and/or with relationship issues so I started drawing. I never liked being told what to draw and how to do it. I mostly like to begin with lines and later find out it looks like something that was unplanned. The reasons why I draw was take my focus off of life. Sometimes drawing something that makes you happy can help you to recall memories from good experiences and can turn your day around. Art is my tool and is my passion.